Stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) from 1951 to 1953, the 301st Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet (RB&L) Group was the European Command (EUCOM) and U.S. Army, Europe (USAREUR) strategic psychological warfare (Psywar) asset in the early Cold War.1Part I on the 301st RB&L recounted the Group’s predecessors in the late 1940s, its October 1950 activation in the U.S. Army Reserve (USAR), and the start of its two-year federalization in May 1951. The article described unit members’ skills and backgrounds, including how most of the radio broadcasting personnel came from the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in New York. Part I explained the diverse training that the RB&L took at the Army General School at Fort Riley, Kansas, ranging from basic combat training to specialized Psywar courses. Finally, it covered the RB&L’s November 1951 movement to the FRG to satisfy requests for a strategic Psywar unit from Major General (MG) Daniel C. Noce, Chief of Staff, EUCOM. This article picks up the 301st in Germany, detailing its organization, mission, and activities while deployed.
The 301st was functionally organized and chartered to conduct strategic Psywar. Consisting of a Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC), a Reproduction Company, and a Mobile Radio Broadcasting Company (MRBC), the Group had three overarching doctrinal missions, according to the Psywar School at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. These were: conducting strategic Psywar with leaflets and radio broadcasts; assisting Seventh U.S. Army’s tactical psywar asset, the 5th Loudspeaker and Leaflet (L&L) Company, as required; and supporting the broad U.S. global propaganda campaign.2
European Command Insignia
However, in accordance with U.S. national policy, the 301st RB&L did not engage in Psywar because Germany was not a combat zone. In April 1951, the U.S. National Security Council specified that in non-combat areas, the U.S. military could not conduct Psywar without the explicit approval of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. (The U.S. Department of State had the lead on informational activities during peacetime.)3 Five years later, in FM 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, the Army underscored that military Psywar could be used during wartime only.4
1LT Robert M. Zweck (center), former National Broadcasting Company (NBC) radio technician then serving as a transcription and sound engineer in the MRBC, poses with two soldiers on guard duty at Sullivan Barracks in April 1952.
While the 301st RB&L did not conduct Psywar, this article explains how the unit prepared for that mission, as well as its various other activities. Headquartered at Sullivan Barracks in Mannheim, the Group researched Communist news, politics, and propaganda; developed propaganda scripts and programs; designed and printed non-Psywar products; and trained with other broadcasting agencies such as American Forces Network (AFN) in Frankfurt and Voice of America (VOA) in Munich.5 It also built rapport with the local German population and traveled around to ‘sell’ Psywar to other American units stationed in the FRG. The 301st began operations upon arrival in Germany.
Early in the deployment, 301st RB&L Commander, Colonel (COL) Ellsworth H. Gruber, and Executive Officer (XO), Major (MAJ) Howard A. Praeger worked on formalizing a long-term unit training program with the Psywar Branch, Division of Operations, Plans, Organization, and Training, EUCOM. In the meantime, soldiers received classes on the organizational structure of EUCOM and Heidelberg Military Post (HMP), and on European politics and history.6 First Lieutenant (1LT) Robert M. Zweck, a transcription and sound engineer in the MRBC, recalled “intensive” classes to instill “a fundamental knowledge of the German language.”7 Before long, the RB&L’s staff and companies were up and running.
Commanded first by Captain (CPT) James J. Patterson and later by First Lieutenant (1LT) Lester S. MacGregory, the HHC consisted of the personnel working in the Group staff sections. Under 1LT Edward Starr, the S-1 handled the Group personnel requirements. Headed by CPT Edward A. Jabbour and later by 1LT Albert Somit, the S-2 (Intelligence) wrote country assessments, studied foreign media, trained in prisoner interrogation, and analyzed foreign broadcasts recorded by the MRBC Monitoring Section.8 While the S-1 and S-2 performed generally routine functions, the S-3 (Plans and Operations) played a critical role in Psywar training.
CPT Parker D. Snow
Under CPT Parker D. Snow (who later became Group XO), the S-3 supervised Group training, helped write country studies, and during wartime would develop Psywar themes and products.9 Writing propaganda required creativity and skills in influencing others, and the S-3 had smart, talented soldiers for that task. These included several who “came from the advertising industry,” remembered MRBC radio officer Second Lieutenant (2LT) John W. Evans, Jr.10 Writers could make use of information gathered by S-3 linguists. Corporal (CPL) Julien J. Studley, an S-3 linguist, remembered, “I read the papers and cut out things I thought would be useful.”11 When not scheduling training, inspections, or projects for linguists, Operations Sergeant (SGT) Peter K. Dallo (a fluent German speaker) also scanned German newspapers for items of potential Psywar value.12
In addition to reading various European periodicals, S-3 linguists also tuned in to foreign radio broadcasts. That process could yield important new information. For example, in early March 1953, CPL Cesare G. Ugianskis (an ethnic Lithuanian serving as an S-3 linguist) heard the breaking news on Radio Moscow that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had died, a good piece of information even if it did not have immediate Psywar value.13 By virtue of the linguistic ability to gather relevant foreign information and propaganda skills in writing effective leaflets and radio scripts, the S-3 performed critical functions for the Group. Rounding out the 301st RB&L staff was the S-4.
The son of a Lithuanian army officer, CPL Cesare G. Ugianskis (L) came to the U.S. in 1949, worked odd jobs in Chicago, and enlisted in the U.S. Army on 13 June 1950. In mid-1951 he transferred from the 1st RB&L Group to the 301st RB&L as a linguist in the S-3.
Headed by former MRBC commander CPT William B. Buschgen and later by 1LT Freeland L. Townsley, the S-4 handled the Group supply and logistical requirements.14 Among the enlisted personnel in the S-4 were the commander’s twin sons, SGT Donald A. and CPL Gerald A. Gruber. Although an Infantryman by Military Occupational Specialty, CPL Gruber snagged the only vacant slot in the section: Supply Record Specialist. He took logistical training in Lenggries, FRG, before going to work in the Group supply warehouse. He remained in the S-4 until mid-1953, when he successfully transferred 301st RB&L property to its short-lived successor, the 7721st RB&L Group.15 The S-4 and the rest of the staff supported the two functional companies, Reproduction and the MRBC.
84th ID (World War II) veteran-turned-newspaperman in Riverton, Wyoming, CPT Leroy E. Peck (center, kneeling), and the rest of the Reproduction Company, pose for a unit photo outside of Sullivan Barracks in 1952.
CPT Leroy E. Peck commanded the Reproduction Company. The 84th Infantry Division WWII combat veteran and postwar newspaper publisher in Riverton, Wyoming, was recalled to active duty after the Korean War began. Peck knew the army “from buck private to combat-experienced commanding officer,” and was COL Gruber’s ‘go-to’ man.16 1LT Zweck remembered him as “a real tough guy.”17 Peck was an ideal leader to instill a sharp training focus in his company.
Consisting of a headquarters section and Reproduction Platoon, the company’s wartime mission involved printing leaflets based on themes and designs provided by the S-3.18 However, as previously described, the company could not print or disseminate actual Psywar products during peacetime. Reproduction personnel clearly understood that policy. Printing foreman Staff Sergeant (SSG) Alphonse A. Principato remembered, “We couldn’t distribute the leaflets outside of the Kaserne because that was an act of war.”19 Private Albert A. Hartinian, Reproduction Company photographer, seconded, “Nothing was supposed to go across the line [into Eastern Europe].”20
301st RB&L Commander, COL Ellsworth H. Gruber (C), poses with his twin sons, SGT Donald A. Gruber (L) and PVT Gerald A. Gruber (R), for a Mother’s Day photo in May 1952. Both brothers worked in the Headquarters Company.COL Ellsworth H. Gruber, 301st RB&L Commander (L), and CPT Leroy E. Peck, Reproduction Company Commander (second from left), showcase the printing facility and equipment to Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) Richard G. Ciccolella, EUCOM Psywar Officer (second from right), and Brigadier General (BG) Robert A. McClure, Chief of Psychological Warfare in the Pentagon (R), in 1952.
Despite this prohibition on putting out actual propaganda, Reproduction Company did plenty of printing. It printed training aids, programs, menus, and other items for various units, “and we even did some commercial projects,” recalled Offset Pressman CPL Thomas F. McCulley.21 “Printing jobs of all kinds were undertaken,” echoed COL Frank A. McCulloch, 301st RB&L commander as of 11 September 1952.22 For example, on 19 May 1952, the company began printing 10,000 four-page, three-color programs for a Seventh Army event. Three months later it printed 250,000 tactical leaflets for training by the 5th L&L, which was low on paper at the time.23 In September 1952, Reproduction Company “printed many pamphlets and booklets for [USAREUR], Heidelberg Military Post, and many other organizations as training projects for technical personnel.”24 The company turned out humorous products as well.
An artist’s rendition of a satirical cartoon developed by the S-3 propagandists based on intercepted Radio Moscow broadcasts. It was then printed in leaflet-size by the Reproduction Company and disseminated to troops on the Kaserne.
According to SSG Principato, the Reproduction Company printed leaflets with satirical cartoons drawn by S-3 artists. Topics were based on Radio Moscow broadcasts that the MRBC’s Monitoring Section had recorded. For example, one artist “drew a picture of [Dwight D.] Eisenhower with a rough beard, hand grenades hanging from his lapels, two guns beside him, and walking down Broadway.” Principato paraphrased the caption: “Eisenhower Starts His Presidential Campaign.” That cartoon depicted Soviet fears of an Eisenhower presidency. The Reproduction Company printed 150 copies to give a laugh to soldiers on the Kaserne.25 These assorted newsletters, leaflets, pamphlets, programs, and cartoons demonstrated the range of products printed by the company on behalf of the RB&L.
The Reproduction Company printed products for other units stationed in Germany, including these holiday menus for the 46th Anti-Aircraft Automatic Weapons Battalion, the 301st Signal Group, and the 17th Special Service Company.
Reproduction’s sister company, the MRBC, was organized, manned, and equipped for strategic radio broadcasting. Commanded by 1LT Robert H. Barnaby, the MRBC had a headquarters, a Monitoring Section, and a Mobile Radio Platoon that could split into detachments. (The company lacked enough personnel for three complete Mobile Radio Platoons as prescribed in Table of Distribution [T/D] 250-1203).26 Former NBC employees furnished much of the company manpower. “There was this strange mix of very talented and outstanding people that were the core group from [NBC in] New York,” recalled radio officer 2LT John W. Evans, Jr. (Evans was not among the NBC ‘originals’ because he had joined the unit at Fort Riley after completing 13-week-long Signal Officer training at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey.)27 Just as the Reproduction Company could not distribute Psywar leaflets, the MRBC could not conduct Psywar via radio. Still, the company set up its studios to train for its wartime role.
The MRBC required extensive studio equipment if it were to run “24-hour-a-day operations of news, special events, and propaganda,” according to 1LT Zweck.28 Radio engineer SSG Robert R. Rudick remarked, “We knew what we needed to run a studio—turntables, OP-7s [remote broadcast mixers], and tape-recorders, which we were able to get. There was an announcer’s booth, and you could run a regular talk show from in there.”29 However, not all of the necessary equipment had accompanied the MRBC to Germany. The task of transporting additional materials from the U.S., notably a 180’ antenna tower, had fallen on a three-man team.
Depicted here is the standard studio set-up in the MRBC’s 35-foot transmitter van (AN/MRT-5), including a mixing board with two master mix faders, a 1/4” tape recorder, and a 33 1/3 RPM turntable. Except for the tape recorder, all equipment was made by Gates Radio Company, Quincy, Illinois.
1LT Elmer R. Mosher, CPL Edward J. Mangold, and PFC Arthur J. Martin did not deploy with the 301st main body. Instead, they had stayed behind at Brooklyn Army Base, New York, to await the arrival of an antenna tower and other equipment ordered from the Gates Radio Company in Quincy, Illinois. Upon arrival, the team supervised the loading of the crated equipment onto the chartered SS American Scout, which soon departed for the FRG. The three soldiers pulled into Bremerhaven in the spring of 1952 (months after the main body) and traveled by jeep to Sullivan Barracks to await the crates. The job of using three M35 2½-ton “deuce and a halfs” to convoy the boxed equipment from Bremerhaven to Mannheim fell on 2LT David L. Housman, SSG Rudick, and a few other MRBC soldiers.30
301st RB&L Commander COL Ellsworth H. Gruber (third from right) and other Group officers explain the nuances of the MRBC’s transmitter van (AN/MRT-5) to the visiting Chief of Psywar, BG Robert A. McClure (third from left).SSG Edward Berman and PFC Max Diamond of the MRBC stand at the concrete base of the 180-foot Gates Radio Company antenna that was transported overseas by 1LT Elmer R. Mosher, CPL Edward A. Mangold, and PFC Arthur J. Martin in early 1952.
According to Martin, upon arrival, “The boxes of antenna parts (a do-it-yourself sort of kit) were [placed] up in the second floor of one of the motor pool garages. There they sat until the decision was made to put it together and erect it out in the field where the transmitter trailer was located.”31 “Martin was a big part of the construction of that tower,” said Rudick. Due to the shortage of on-hand riggers, “we got three soldiers who were in the slammer to help.”32
First, the riggers painted the tower’s mast sections red “to provide enhanced visibility [for aircraft] when it was erected.” Then, the bottom insulator was bolted to the recently installed concrete base. “The three ground anchors were positioned and screwed into the semi-sandy soil to use as temporary anchor points … The first section was balanced on the insulator and temporarily guyed. Then the remaining pre-assembled sections, alternating silver and red, were bolted together, using temporary guy wires to keep all the sections as near vertical as possible.”33
After bolting in the top section, the team made final adjustments to the guy wire tensions to ensure a steady vertical alignment of the tower. Then, late one afternoon, Martin attached and wired aircraft warning lights “just as a good sized thunderstorm was advancing from the direction of Mannheim. I finished that job as quickly as possible before the storm reached us.” Finally, they connected the warning lights to an electrical supply and connected the transmitter trailer to the lowest antenna section. Not counting installation of the concrete base, assembly of the tower took about a week. According to Martin, “COL Gruber could be justifiably proud. No one got injured on the job.”34 This and the rest of the equipment facilitated the company’s long-range broadcasting capability.
As the MRBC procured and set up its equipment, personnel trained on broadcast production and programming. This frequently involved temporary duty (TDY) assignments to work with other broadcasting agencies, namely the AFN and the VOA. On 7 January 1952, 2LTs David L. Housman and Edward E. Kaufman, Sergeant First Class (SFC) Frank R. Weber, and SGT George D. Abercrombie left for a 30-day TDY with AFN, a U.S. military-run network with programming for American personnel stationed in Europe. 1LT William R. Hevell trained with AFN for two weeks in February. Another team followed him in March. Two months later, other MRB soldiers trained with VOA, a broadcasting asset of the State Department.35 These TDYs helped MRBC personnel learn more about developing effective programs.36 In order to stay abreast of Communist propaganda (which was critical background for developing Psywar programming), the MRBC tracked foreign radio programs.
Members of the MRBC Monitoring Section tune into Communist broadcasts, ready to record relevant information.
The Monitoring Section tuned into and recorded Communist programming from Radios Moscow, Berlin, Warsaw (Poland), Brasov (Romania), Bucharest (Romania), and Pirenaica (an underground Communist station for Spanish audiences). PFC Martin remembered, “I spent most of my duty hours monitoring various radio frequencies [being] tape recorded … for interpretation by the intelligence section utilizing the equipment in the radio intercept shelter.”37 The Monitoring Section forwarded recordings to the S-2 for translation, analysis, and collation into Propaganda Review. The RB&L then pushed that daily intelligence product up to USAREUR and EUCOM.38 The Monitoring Section continued intercepting foreign broadcasts amidst other MRBC initiatives.
The MRBC executed numerous training and experimentation programs. In January 1952, 1LT Zweck launched an internal “anti-jamming” training course, a relevant lesson given Soviets’ blocking of VOA broadcasts into Eastern Europe in 1949-1950. In June, the MRBC began collaborating with the recently activated twelve-man 7878th Augmentation Detachment (Balloon) to test barrage balloons for broadcasting. The detachment raised a balloon antenna and successfully made a broadcast on 12 August, but the cooperative program concluded on 29 August. Also in August, the company tested a new miniature tape recorder and loudspeaker and participated in a four-day Command Post Exercise (CPX).39 Five months later, the company put its training to use with a ‘real-world’ assignment.
In January 1953, the MRBC received the tasking to assist AFN. An intervening mountain range kept Frankfurt-based AFN broadcasts from reaching U.S. Army units in Kaiserslautern (some 75 miles southwest). The MRBC delegated one detachment to set up mobile equipment in Kaiserslautern to relay AFN to troops there. Led by 2LT Robert E. Shepard, this detail consisted of 2LT Harvey W. Johnson; Master Sergeant (MSG) Wilburn W. Rockett; SGTs George D. Abercrombie, and William F. Burke, Jr.; CPLs Edward J. Mangold, John R. O’Keefe, William R. Kreklau, Ronald G. Kampel, and Richard J. Lerner; and PFCs Arthur J. Martin, Harry McCune, Michael J. Stoppleman, and George Murphy.40 The group packed its equipment and convoyed from Mannheim to Kaiserslautern.
On 15 January, the MRB detachment arrived near the Vogelweh Shopping Center, where it met three Germans contracted to assist with rigging. Delayed due to inclement weather, construction of the tower began the next day. MRB soldiers “dug innumerable holes for telephone poles, guy wires, latrines, drainage pits and so forth. The transmitter van and tuning shelter were jockeyed into position while the engineers readied the transmitter for action. German power was installed, and on 6 February AFN Kaiserslautern went into operation.”41
SSG Robert R. Rudick (seated in background) “throws a cue” to voice actor CPL John R. O’Keefe (standing), while additional actors CPL Leonard T. Giarraputo and PFC Michael J. Stoppleman (seated in foreground, left to right) stand by. They were demonstrating a typical Psywar broadcast to troops stationed in Munich, Germany, 1952. An unidentified MRBC soldier mans AFN Kaiserslautern, set up in January 1953 to relay AFN broadcasts emanating from Frankfurt. The MRBC detachment continued manning AFN Kaiserslautern after the May 1953 de-federalization of the 301st RB&L, during the brief existence of its replacement, the 7721st RB&L.
Personnel rotated in and out of the detachment after AFN Kaiserslautern went on the air. SGT Burke, CPLs Mangold, Lerner, and O’Keefe, and PFCs Martin and McCune left soon afterward. 2LT Shepard left as well, leaving 2LT Johnson as detachment commander. SGT Frank Frederick and two junior enlisted soldiers arrived to backfill some of the departed personnel. Despite personnel changeovers, the detachment relayed AFN for the next several months, thus providing the MRBC with a valuable training opportunity.42
As the 301st RB&L companies trained for their wartime mission, the Group also launched public relations initiatives to build rapport with the local German population. For example, the unit ‘adopted’ children from nearby orphanages and allowed them to visit the Group facilities, particularly on special occasions. In December 1951, orphans from Weinheim joined the Group during its holiday festivities. The following year, HHC First Sergeant (1SG) Edward M. Morris and MRBC CPL John R. O’Keefe arranged for 27 children from the Pforzheim Orphanage to do the same. The RB&L gave the children toys, games, food, and other kinds of “common luxuries” enjoyed by American kids. COL McCulloch wrote that the latter initiative had helped “cement the friendship between the people of Pforzheim and vicinity and the Americans.”43
The 301st RB&L also built relationships with other U.S. Army units in order to ‘sell’ them on Psywar. For example, one team consisting of 1LT Walter B. Ehrgott, SSG Rudick, and a couple other enlisted men traveled around and touted Psywar as “the world’s second oldest profession.”44 In September 1952 alone, teams traveled to Heidelberg, Munich, Frankfurt, Bonn, Berlin, and Paris, France, to “establish liaison with other organizations concerned with [Psywar] activities and to coordinate efforts along these lines.” To demonstrate Communist propaganda, the 301st showed The Condemned Village, an East German propaganda film, to U.S. Army units.45
Drafted in January 1951 from his foreman job at the Boston printing firm, Arcana Graphics, SSG Alphonse A. Principato, Reproduction Company, got to visit family and sightsee in Italy while on leave. Here he is photographed inside the Coliseum in Rome.
When not participating in these various training and public relations initiatives, soldiers could take leave and explore Europe. Psyche, the unit newsletter, asked readers: “What better time is there to see the wonders of the ‘Old World’ than now, when Uncle Sam is financing your journey?”46 According to another edition, “Almost everybody took their leaves in foreign countries.”47 COLs Gruber and McCulloch allowed fifteen percent of the unit to be on leave at a time.48 SSG Rudick remembered, “Passes were written by the HHC. We were able to go anywhere, except for Soviet zones in Germany or Communist nations.”49 When not on leave, soldiers spent their spare time in other ways.
301st RB&L members participated in many different ‘extracurricular’ activities. This included unit sports teams that competed against other U.S. military teams in Germany. Volunteers also contributed to Psyche, first published in December 1952. According to the first issue, “you can take the editors’ word that Psyche has the whole-hearted backing of such people as COL Frank A. McCulloch, CPT Parker Snow, 1LT Frederick C. Kendall, and everyone in Reproduction Company. To insure bigger and better editions, support is needed from other important people, like corporals, privates, and sergeants. And officers, too.”50 Between training, public relations initiatives, extracurricular activities, and leave, the unit took advantage of its time in the FRG, which was rapidly drawing to a close.
CPL Arthur K. Keurajian
In late 1952, personnel losses mounted as reservists reached the end of their service commitments and rotated stateside. For example, the MRBC had 49 assigned personnel on 1 March 1952; on 31 December it had 29.51 Replacements were limited because the 301st was a reserve T/D unit nearing the end of its federalization period. Not content to rely on the Army personnel pipeline, COL McCulloch requested replacements by name even though he knew that the unit was on its way out.52 One such individual was CPL Arthur K. Keurajian, former co-owner and operator of a Detroit-based lithographic plate business called Bunker Hill Litho. When the 1952 draftee was in basic training at Camp Pickett, Virginia, he was contacted by McCulloch, who arranged for his assignment to the Reproduction Company.53
The trickle of qualified arrivals like Keurajian into the unit was ‘too little, too late.’ In May 1953, the 301st reverted to USAR control and was replaced by the USAREUR-created 7721st RB&L.54 However, this de-federalization was an administrative paper drill since the unit did not physically go anywhere; remaining soldiers and equipment just transferred to the short-lived 7721st until they could be placed elsewhere. A unit on paper only, the 301st remained on USAR status in New York City until the April 1954 disbandment of the HHC.55 This concluded the career of one of the U.S. Army strategic Psywar units in the early years of the Cold War.
This article has centered on the 301st RB&L, a EUCOM and USAREUR strategic Psywar asset from November 1951 to May 1953. Due to national policy, the Group was barred from sending leaflets and strategic radio broadcasts across the Iron Curtain. As explained by the Chief of Psychological Warfare in the Pentagon, Brigadier General Robert A. McClure, “[W]e are not active [in the Psywar field] in Europe. It is a State Department activity there now and we support that to the extent that it is desirable for us to do so.”56 However, the RB&L trained hard for its wartime role so that if “we’re called into action, we can thus do so with the least hesitancy,” according to McCulloch.57
The 301st RB&L Group was unique for several reasons. First, as explained in Part I, it had origins in multiple New York-based reserve units activated in the late 1940s, notably an NBC-sponsored MRBC. Second, it was activated in October 1950, federalized in May 1951, and trained for six months at Fort Riley as part of a concerted U.S. Army effort to rebuild a moribund Psywar capability. Third, the Group had a unique assortment of personnel with diverse military, professional, and linguistic backgrounds. Finally, the 301st RB&L was the only federalized reserve Psywar unit and the only strategic Psywar unit in Europe in the early 1950s. While deployed, 301st members realized that the Cold War could soon turn hot in Europe, especially since, as CPL Alan E. Bandler (HHC) recalled, “other GIs were being killed in Korea.”58
ENDNOTES
Jared M. Tracy, “Psyche: The 301st Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group, Part I,” Veritas: Journal of Army Special Operations History 10/1 (2014): 13-23.[return]
Psychological Warfare School, Special Text 33-25-1: Psychological Warfare Field Operational Units (Fort Bragg, NC: 1953), 3, U.S. Heritage and Education Center (USAHEC), Carlisle, PA.[return]
National Security Council, “National Psychological Warfare Plan for General War,” 9 April 1951, 3-6, Folder “Psychological & Information Programs (5),” Box 40, White House Office, National Security Council Staff: Papers, 1948-1961, Disaster File Series, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas. [return]
Department of the Army, FM 27-10: The Law of Land Warfare (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1956), 23.[return]
Also at Sullivan Barracks were the 40th Tank Battalion, the 46th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, the 527th Military Police Company, and other units.Mannheim was less than 150 miles from the GDR border and situated slightly northwest of Heidelberg in the state of Baden-Wurttemberg.The area fell under the purview of the Heidelberg Military Post area (re-designated Headquarters, Area Command under USAREUR on 1 December 1952). Heidelberg Military Post Telephone Directory, 29 March 1952, cited in email from Walter Elkins to Jared M. Tracy, 11 June 2013; The Adjutant General’s Office, Directory and Station List of the United States Army (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1952), 504-505, 515.[return]
5th L&L, “301stRB&L Sets Up Shop at Mannheim,” The Leaflet, 30 November 1951, 1; 301stRB&L, unpublished unit history, no date, 15, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter 301stunpublished history.[return]
Robert M. Zweck, MRBC, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 20 December 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II, entries for 7 January, 16 July, 4 August, and 18 August 1952, all in Folder “HQ, 301stRB&L Historical Reports, 1951-1952,” B5819, RG 338, NARA, hereafter 301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II.[return]
Special Text 33-25-1, 7; 301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II, entry 20 March 1952; “About People,” Psyche 1/1 (December 1952): 8, Folder “HQ, 301stRB&L Historical Reports, 1951-1952,” B5819, RG 338, NARA.[return]
John W. Evans, Jr., MRBC, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 29 July 2014, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Julien Studley, HHC, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 30 December 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. [return]
Peter K. Dallo, HHC, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 21 January 2011 USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Cesare G. Ugianskis, HHC, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 27 January 2011, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Gerald A. Gruber, HHC, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 29 December 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC; Historical Data Card, 7721stRB&L, Center of Military History (CMH), Fort McNair, Washington, DC.[return]
Reproduction Company, “Peck’s Bad Boys,” no date, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Special Text 33-25-1, 13; Dallo interview, 21 January 2011.[return]
Alphonse A. Principato, Reproduction Company, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 17 December 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Albert A. Hartinian, Reproduction Company, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 29 December 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
301stRB&L, “Ring Out the Old,” Psyche 1/ 2 (December 1952): 6, Folder “HQ, 301stRB&L Historical Reports, 1951-1952,” Box 5819, RG 338, NARA, hereafter “Ring Out the Old”; Thomas F. McCulley, Reproduction Company, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 17 December 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
COL Gruber left command on 16 August 1952; MAJ Praeger served as commander until COL McCulloch arrived. COL Frank A. McCulloch, “Letter from the Colonel,” Psyche 1/4 (no date, ca. May 1953): 1, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter “Letter from the Colonel.”[return]
301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II, entries 19 May 1952, 5 August 1952, 18 August 1952.[return]
Historical Resume of the 301stRB&L, 1, Box 567, RG 338, NARA, hereafter 301stHistorical Resume.[return]
Robert R. Rudick, MRBC, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 9 August 2012, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Email from Robert R. Rudick to Jared M. Tracy, 20 September 2014, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter Martin email.[return]
Email from Arthur Martin to John W. Evans, Jr., Robert M. Zweck, and Robert R. Rudick, 27 November 2010, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter Martin email.[return]
Additional TDYs in March-April 1952 included 2LT William R. Hevell and CPL John O’Keefe to Frankfurt for two weeks; 2LT George Gladir to Regensberg for seven weeks with intelligence units; 2LT Horst Petzall, SGT Edward J. Murphy, and CPL Myles J. Gilsenan to Bonn for two weeks; and 1LT Wilmer T. Rabe, 2LT David L. Housman, and Richard J. Cox to Munich. Morning Reports, 1 March 1952, 6 March 1952, 14 April 1952, and 29 April 1952, MRBC, 301stRB&L, National Personnel Records Center (NPRC)/NARA, St. Louis, MO.[return]
301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II, entries 7 January 1952, 14 January 1952, 17 January 1952, and 18 February 1952.[return]
301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II, 23 January 1952, 20 May 1952, 17 June 1952, 16 July 1952, 6 August 1952, 11 August 1952, 12 August 1952, Folder “HQ, 301stRB&L Historical Reports, 1951-1952,” Box 5819, RG 338, NARA.[return]
301stHistorical Resume, 3; George Murphy, “Report from Kaiserslautern,” Psyche 1/4 (no date, ca. May 1953): 18-20, hereafter “Report from Kaiserslautern.” [return]
During WWII, Allied bombers hit Pforzheim which was suspected of manufacturing parts for German V-2 rockets.Nearly two-thirds of the city had been destroyed and thousands of residents had been killed. Ian K. Starr, “The Pforzheim Orphans,” Psyche 1/2 (no date): 1, 4, Folder “HQ, 301st RB&L Historical Reports, 1951-1952,” B5819, RG 338, NARA; “Letter from the Colonel,” 1.[return]
The 5th L&L took over the Condemned Village mission on 23 September 1952. 301stHistorical Resume, 1; 301stRB&L Unit Journal, Vol. II, entry 28 July 1952.[return]
Bill Harper, “Your Own Backyard,” Psyche 1/4 (no date, ca. May 1953): 22.[return]
301stRB&L, “Few Cheers for the Winners,” Psyche 1/1 (December 1952): 1.[return]
Morning Reports, 1 March 1952 and 31 December 1952, MRBC, 301stRB&L, NPRC/NARA.[return]
See 301stRB&L, “Colonel McCulloch Sees Smooth Transition,” “Departures,” and “Arrivals,” Psyche 1/1 (December 1952): 3-6. In November 1952 the 301stlost twenty-three enlisted personnel (at least six of whom had been NBC employees) and only welcomed ten.That month, the 301st lost MAJ Praeger, CPT Buschgen, 1LT Starr, CPT Barnaby, 1LT MacGregory, and 1LT Ehrgott, all former NBC employees except for Praeger.The only officer to arrive in November was 1LT Roy W. Nickerson.[return]
Arthur K. Keurajian, Reproduction Company, 301stRB&L, interview by Jared M. Tracy, 13 January 2011, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
COL Frank A. McCulloch, “From the desk of Col. F.A. McCulloch,” Psyche (no date, ca. June 1953): 2, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
BG Robert A. McClure’s quotation excerpted from “Interview with Brig. Gen. Robert A. McClure: Psychological Strategy as a Preventative of Large War,” U.S. News and World Report (January 1953): 60-69. [return]
“COL McCulloch Sees Smooth Transition,” Psyche 1/1 (December 1952): 3.[return]
Bandler’s quotation in Peter Hellman, Shaping the Skyline: The World According to Real Estate Visionary Julien Studley (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004), 75.[return]
Memorandum from Robert A. McClure to Robert M. Montague, 19 May 1952, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC.[return]
Central Intelligence Agency, “National Intelligence Estimate: Soviet Control of the European Satellites and Their Economic and Military Contributions to Soviet Power, Through Mid-1953,” 7 November 1951, 9, 11. [return]
Bandler’s quotations in Peter Hellman, Shaping the Skyline: The World According to Real Estate Visionary Julien Studley (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004), 69. [return]
Established in 1949, the U.S.- and Western Europe-based NATO was chartered to provide collective security to member nations against Communism. [return]
“Organizational Structure of the European Command,” 1 January 1952, http://www.usarmygermany.com/sont.htm (accessed 11 June 2013); “Organization of the European Command,” 1 January 1950, “Organization of the European Command,” 1 May 1952, and “U.S. Army Tactical Organization in Germany,” 31 December 1952, in Oliver J. Frederickson, The American Military Occupation of Germany, 1945-1953 (Historical Division, Headquarters, United States Army, Europe, 1953), 151, 153, 157, 198-199.[return]
Transcript of Voice of America’s first Russian broadcast, Folder “Voice of America-Correspondence re: 1946-54,” Box 5, Charles W. Thayer Papers, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, Independence, MO; Kansas City Star, 17 February 1947.For more on the VOA, see Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997); Robert Pirsein, “The Voice of America: A History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States Government, 1940-1962” (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1970); and Alan Heil, Jr., Voice of America: A History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003).[return]
“Voice of America Hit by Soviet ‘Jamming,’” New York Times, 30 April 1930.[return]
Lawrence C. Soley, Radio Warfare: OSS and CIA Subversive Propaganda (New York: Praeger, 1989), 221-222; “RFE/RL History,” http://www.rferl.org/info/history/133.html (accessed 12 June 2013); “RFE/RL Chronology,” http://www.rferl.org/info/chronology/538.html (accessed 12 June 2013).[return]
“AFN History Timeline,” http://www.afneurope.net/aboutus/tabid/85/default.aspx (accessed 20 August 2014).[return]
U.S. Congress, United States Information and Educational Exchange Act, 1948, 80thCongress, 2nd Session.[return]
